Three Essays on Inequalities in Education Policy

Abstract

Education policies often adopt broad, one-size-fits-all approaches that fail to address the unique challenges faced by multilingual learners classified as English Learners (ML-ELs) and students living in extreme poverty. This dissertation investigates how three education policies—grade retention, school funding, and online tutoring—shape the academic outcomes and learning opportunities of these vulnerable student populations through three empirical studies. The first study estimates the effects of test-based grade retention on ML-ELs in Texas using a regression discontinuity design. It finds that retention and supplemental reading services improve math and reading proficiency and increase the likelihood of reclassification. However, these benefits do not extend to long-term outcomes such as post-secondary enrollment or earnings in young adulthood. Furthermore, the effects of retention are more pronounced in schools with higher expenditures on retained students or bilingual education, highlighting the importance of school resources. In the second study, I analyze spending progressivity for ML-ELs in a U.S. district that uses student-based budgeting (SBB). Under SBB, districts allocate funds to schools based on student needs using weighted formulas and give principals more control over the budget. I compare average per-pupil spending for ML-ELs and non-ELs across six financial metrics, including general funds, Title I, and direct instruction. The findings indicate that general fund spending is, on average, equal for ML-ELs and non-ELs, while spending on direct instruction is progressive. However, in schools with a higher concentration of ML-EL, funding tends to be neutral or less progressive. The third study evaluates a virtual tutoring program implemented in Buenaventura, Colombia, in 2021. Although the program incorporated best practices in tutoring design, it did not yield significant academic gains. The limited impact may have been driven by technological barriers, such as limited access to laptops or smartphones, which may have hindered student engagement and learning. This paper highlights the challenges of implementing virtual tutoring in contexts of extreme poverty. Collectively, these studies underscore the importance of analyzing how education policies designed with all students in mind affect vulnerable students, and therefore, whether they address inequalities in opportunities and outcomes.